Introduction
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Aedile
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Roman
magistrate whose duties included maintaining the city of Rome and arranging
public festivals and games.
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Consul
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Head
of government during the Republic. Two elected each year. During Principate,
more of a stepping stone to commands in the provinces/army.
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Comitia Curiata
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Assemblies
of the Roman people, sitting and voting in their parishes (curiae).
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Cursus Honorum
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The
ladder of office climbed by senators in their quest for the consulship.
Progress was affected by the emperor’s favour (or lack or it!)
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Delatores
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A
prosecutor/informer in the treason trials
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Equestrian
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Members
of Rome’s second class. Also known as “knights”.
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Imperator
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Originally
a military title given to the equivalent of a commander. Came to be used as a
title by emperors.
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Imperium
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Supreme
authority. The “power to do something”. Bestowed on consuls and praetors.
Superior form held by the emperor.
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Quaestor
|
A
roman magistrate whose duties were chiefly financial (supervised treasury,
paid army, collection of tax in provinces)
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Pater Patriae
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Father
of the Country
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Patrician
|
Traditionally
the oldest part of Rome’s aristocracy.
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Plebeian
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Common
people, lower classes
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Praetor
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Second
most important office after the consulship. Led to legionary commands and/or
governments of second-rank provinces.
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Praetorian Guard
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The
emperor’s bodyguard
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Princeps
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“First
citizen” – a term of address but did not imply a particular office.
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Proconsular Imperium Maius
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Imperium
in the provinces that is greater “maius” than that of anyone else.
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Provincial Governor
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Senators
or Knights who ruled the provinces of the Roman empire.
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Recusatio imperii
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The
ritual refusal of power by a new emperor (i.e. by Augustus and Tiberius to
the senate)
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Senate
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Council
of nobles forming part of the political institution of Rome. Advisory body to
the emperor.
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Tribunician Potestas
|
Having
the power of a Tribune – traditionally those responsible with defending their
fellow Plebeians against Patrician injustice. They could call the Senate,
introduce legislature and veto decisions.
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It
is also useful to know how upper class Roman names work. An upper class Roman
had three names:
- Praenomen (personal name) of which there was about thirty e.g.
Quintus, Titus, Lucius, Tiberius, Marcus etc
- Nomen (clan or “gens”
name) of which there were thought to have been about a thousand. Examples
include Claudius (Claudian clan), Julius (Julian clan) and Cornelius
(Cornelian clan)
- Cognomen (family name), which indicated the particular branch
of the clan to which a man belonged. Within the Cornelian clan, there were
families with names like Scipio, Sulla & Gallus. Sometimes a cognomen
was an obvious reference to a particular physical/mental peculiarity e.g.
Caesar (curly haired).
Augustus’ Legacy
1.
Name
the three men that Augustus’ daughter Julia was forced to marry
a. Marcus
Claudius Marcellus
b. Agrippa
c.
Tiberius
2.
What
was the relationship of Germanius to Augustus and to Tiberius?
a. Grandson-in-law
and great nephew of Augustus
b. Nephew
and adoptive son of Tiberius
3.
List
the women descended directly from Augustus who were mothers of future emperors.
a. Julia
Major
b. Vipsania
Agrippina II (Agrippina Major): Mother of Caligula
c.
Julia Agrippina (Agrippina Minor): Mother of
Nero
4.
What
was the exact relationship of each of the emperors Tiberius, Gaius (Caligula),
Claudius and Nero to Augustus? Which ones were Julian (descended directly from
Augustus?) and which were Claudian (descended from Augustus’ wife Livia and her
first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero)?
a. Tiberius:
Step son
b. Caligula:
Grandson
c.
Claudius: Grandson of Augustus' second wife
Livia, from her first marriage.
d. Nero: Son
of Agrippina, who was the great-granddaughter of the Augustus.
5.
What
was the relationship between Gaius (Caligula) and Claudius and between Claudius
and Nero?
a. Caligula
nephew of Claudius
b. Nero
was the son of Claudius’ first wife, Agrippina the Younger (Caligula’s sister)
and Augustus’ adoptive son.
6.
Explain
why Agrippa the Younger would have wanted to murder Britannicus (he was killed
in AD55).
a. So
that her own son Nero could become Emperor
Recap
Remember
that Tiberius was not Augustus’ first choice for the next emperor. Name his
previous choices below and their relationship to Augustus.
1.
Marcus
Claudius Marcellus
a. Years
of birth and death: 42BC – 23BC.
b. Links
to Augustus: Married to Augustus’ daughter Julia, and also his nephew.
c.
What happened to him: Died young, 19, cause unknown.
2.
Marcus
Vispanius Agrippa
a. Years
of birth and death: 63BC – 12BC
b. Links
to Augustus: Right hand man and general who won Battle of Actium. Married to
Augustus’ daughter Julia. Would have acted as regent until their grandsons were
old enough.
c.
What happened to him: Dies of sickness in
winter, aged 51.
3.
Gaius
Caesar
a. Years
of birth and death: 20BC – AD4
b. Links
to Augustus: Grandson – son of Julia and Marcus Agrippa. Adopted by Augustus
from 17BC.
c.
What happened to him: Fell ill whilst on a
mission in East. Attempted to return home but died on the way.
4.
Lucius
Caesar
a. Years
of birth and death: 127BC – AD4
b. Links
to Augustus: Grandson – son of Julia and Marcus Agrippa. Adopted by Augustus
from 17BC.
c.
What happened to him: Wounded during siege in
Marseilles. Speculation murdered by Livia.
5.
Tiberius
a. Years
of birth and death: 42BC – AD37.
b. Links
to Augustus: Stepson (mother was Livia) and adopted son of Augustus from AD4.
Third husband of Augustus’ daughter, Julia. Intended to be regent for their
sons.
c.
What was Augustus’ opinion of Tiberius?
i.
Adopted him reluctantly.
ii.
Makes him joint heir with Agrippa Postumus.
iii.
Saw him as a capable general and Suetonius
remarks that Augustus says good outweighs the bad.
iv.
Makes him adopt Germanius (Augustus’ nephew w/
Julian blood).
Timeline of
Augustus
|
63 BC
|
Augustus is born in 63BC to Gaius Octavius
and Atia, niece of Caesar. He isn’t Augustus at the time, but Octavian.
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48 BC
|
Caesar wins the Battle of Pharsalus,
defeating Pompey, who flees to Egypt where he is killed. On October 18,
Octavian (young Augustus) puts on the toga virilis: Octavian is officially a
man.
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45 BC
|
Octavian accompanies Caesar to Spain for the
Battle of Munda.
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44 BC
|
March 15 – Caesar is assassinated. Octavian
is adopted in Caesar’s will.
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43 BC
|
August 19 – Adoption of Octavian (young
Augustus) by Caesar is officially acknowledged. Octavian becomes Gaius Julius
Caesar Octavianus.
November 27 – Second triumvirate.
Proscriptions of at least 100 senators including the execution of Cicero.
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42 BC
|
January 1 – Caesar is deified and Octavian
becomes the son of a god.
October 23 – Battle of Philippi – Antony and
Octavian avenge Caesar’s assassination.
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39 BC
|
Octavian marries Scribonia, the daughter of
Sextus Pompeius, with whom he has a daughter, Julia.
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38 BC
|
Octavian divorces Scribonia and marries
Livia.
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37 BC
|
Antony marries Cleopatra.
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36 BC
|
Octavian defeats Sextus Pompey at Naulochus,
in Sicily. Lepidus is removed from the Triumvirate. This puts the power into
the hands of two men, Antony and Octavian.
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34 BC
|
Antony divorces Octavian’s sister.
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32 BC
|
Rome declares war on Egypt and puts Octavian
in charge.
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31 BC
|
With the help of Agrippa, Octavian defeats
Antony at Actium.
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30 BC
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Cleopatra and Antony commit suicide.
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29 BC
|
Octavian celebrates triumph in Rome.
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27 BC
|
January 16 – Octavian receives the title
Augustus. Augustus receives proconsular power in Spain, Gaul, Syria and
Egypt.
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25 BC
|
Augustus’ daughter Julia marries Marcellus
(Octavian’s nephew).
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23 BC
|
Augustus receives imperium maius and tribunicia
potestas. These give power over magistrates and the veto.
Marcellus dies. Augustus has Agrippa divorce
his wife to marry Julia. Julia and Agrippa have 5 children: Gaius, Lucius,
Postumus, Agrippina and Julia.
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22-19 BC
|
Augustus travels to the East. Augustus is
initiated into the Mysteries of Eleusis and recovers Roman standards captured
by the Parthians.
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17 BC
|
Augustus adopts Gaius and Lucius.
Augustus legislates marriage laws.
May 31 – June 3 – Augustus celebrates the
Ludi Saeculares
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13 BC
|
Agrippa becomes virtual co-emperor, then goes
to Pannonia where she becomes ill.
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12 BC
|
Agrippa [a dies. Augustus forces his stepson
Tiberius to divorce his wife in order to marry Julia.
March 6 – Augustus becomes Pontifex Maximus.
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5 BC
|
January 1 – Gaius is presented as Augustus’
heir.
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2 BC
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January 1 – Augustus becomes pater patriae, father of his own
country.
Julia is involved in scandals and Augustus
exiles his own daughter.
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4 AD
|
Augustus adopted Tiberius and Tiberius adopts
Germanicus
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9 AD
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Teutoburger Wald disaster – Varus suffers
crushing defeat at hands of Germanic tribes.
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13 AD
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April 3 – Tiberius becomes virtual
co-emperor.
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14 AD
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Augustus dies.
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Recap of the Cursus
Honorum “ladder of offices”
(Career ladder for
Roman Politicians)
Whilst looking at Tiberius’
early life, you will have noted that he held a number of political offices or
magistracies in Rome. A magistrate was an elected government official,
occupying a position of power and prestige, both of which increased with the
rank of his office. However, before a young man started on a political career
he was expected to have spent at least ten years in some military
position. The regular magistrates, in
ascending order were:
·
Quaestor
·
Aedile (can be by-passed)
·
Praetor
·
Consul
Certain essential
requirements were laid down, including minimum ages for the various offices, a
two year interval between the holding of consecutive offices and a ten-year
interval between the holdings of the same office. This law made sure that those
who reached high office had the necessary qualifications in both military and
political affairs.
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Position
|
Function
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Minimum Age
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Number elected annually
|
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Quaestor
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Financial official.
Maintained records, supervised treasury, dealt with tax in the provinces etc.
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30 (lowered to 25 by
Augustus in
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20
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Aedile
|
In charge of the
public order in Rome. Dealt with riots, water supply, buildings, public games
etc.
|
37
|
4
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Praetor
|
Legal post. Ran the
law courts.
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39
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8
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Consul
|
Top office of state.
Commanded army, conducted elections, presided over senate and implemented
their decisions.
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42 (40 for
Patricians)
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2
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Recap of Roman
Society
Roman
society was built around a class system that dated back to the founding of
Rome. There were three main classes: Patricians, Equestrians and Plebeians.
These classes were not equal and the richer citizens controlled society – and
Oligarchy. The distinction between these could sometimes be blurred, and the
relationship between the classes changed over time e.g. inter-marriage. However
each had a role in society and there were certain rules that applied to each.
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Patrician
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Equestrian
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Plebeian
|
Slaves
|
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Wealthy and powerful.
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Entitled to own a public horse.
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No status.
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Property of owner.
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Extra legal status.
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Economic and public trade.
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Cn only move up half the political
ladder.
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1/3 Romans slaves.
1/3 Slaves black.
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Can own slaves.
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Chosen by emperors to govern imperial
provinces.
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Aedile highest role they can achieve.
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Children can be born into slavery.
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Born into power.
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Praetorian prefects.
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Official Roman citizens.
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Manumission – buying their way out.
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Only class allowed to be part of
senate.
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Not allowed to be senators.
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Augustus used freed men as civil
service.
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Cannot marry plebeians.
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Head of praetorian guard.
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Mines/building/public staff.
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Cavalry and merchant class.
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Positives of Tiberius becoming
emperor
|
Problems associated with accession
|
|
Appointed provincial governor at 25 – governing experience.
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Not emotionally stable – divorce from first wife.
|
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Experience commanding armies.
|
Had been retired for many years before returning to Rome.
|
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Husband of a Julian (Julia).
|
Not favoured by Augustus – not his first choice as heir.
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|
Trusted by Augustus to act as a guardian to his heirs at the time,
Gaius and Lucius.
|
Questionable personal life – little fishes.
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|
Adopted by Augustus.
|
Divorced from Julia – no longer linked to Julians.
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Respectful of Augustus after his death.
|
Not trusted with complete heirship – shared with Postumus.
|
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Divorce of first wife to marry Julia – loyal to Rome (although not much
choice).
|
Didn’t build many public work projects.
|
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Diplomacy skills – retrieved the standards lost by Crassus.
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Suspicion surrounding his succession.
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Consulship at 28 – min age 42.
|
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Introduction to our
first historical source: Suetonius.
Suetonius
was writing during the reign of Hadrian and was the emperor’s secretary. His
career was different to that of Tacitus (the other historian we will study) as
he remained of equestrian status (a knight) and therefore did not enter the
Senate. The era in which Hadrian was emperor is known as the period of the
“adoptive emperors” (chosen on merit not birth) and therefore part of
Suetonius’ motive for writing was to please Hadrian by justifying the rejection
of the principle of hereditary monarchy. This is why there is a tendency to
emphasise the drawbacks of the hereditary principle, without criticizing the
idea of a princeps as such.
Hereditary monarchy means a lottery at birth – you might end up with someone
decent e.g. Titus but you are more likely to end up with a Caligula, Nero or
Domitian.
|
Positives
|
Negatives
|
|
His biographies are complete so we have plenty to
go on.
|
More concerned with emperors’ personalities and
behaviour than with major political and military events during their reigns.
|
|
We are able to use his biographies to make
comparisons between portrayals of emperors e.g. Tiberius and Claudius.
|
Written after the events/individuals.
|
|
Access to archives as he is employed by emperor
Hadrian.
|
Still writing under an imperial system so his
views may be influenced by this.
|
|
Uses eye witness accounts.
|
Too much emphasis on anecdotes (although actual
documents referenced in places) – is not sufficiently critical enough of his
sources, therefore leading to unsubstantiated gossip/scandal.
|
|
Follows a clear formula that provides a structure
to his biographies: starts with family background and early life and ends
with character and physical appearance as this approach lends itself to a
depth of insight on character.
|
Archived material cannot contain much evidence for
an individual’s motivation and/or character?
Formulaic approach is possibly limiting
Despite not moralising, arranges his material with
the negative points last (leading the reader to certain impressions).
|
|
Does not moralise; presents his material and
leaves the reader to make up their own mind
Includes anecdotes (stories/narratives) for
interest.
|
Possible bias as a result of writing to please
Hadrian by justifying the rejection of a hereditary monarchy.
|
|
Useful in conjunction with fellow historian,
Tacitus.
|
Also uses a great number of Greek technical terms
which was considered bad style on Latin literary writing.
|
Independent Reading
Task:
Read
Suetonius’ account of Tiberius’ early life and answer the questions that
follow. Note that the number next to each question related to the paragraph of
Suetonius’ Tiberius that you will
find the answer in.
1.
How old was Tiberius when his father died? What
task did Tiberius perform at his father’s funeral? (6)
a. 9.
b. Delivered
the eulogy.
2.
Who was the father of Vipsania, Tiberius’ first
wife? Why did Tiberius strongly disapprove of Julia, who became his second
wife? (7)
a. Marcus
Agrippa.
b. Still
in love with Vipsania and only married Julia for political gain.
3.
When Tiberius retired to Rhodes, to give Gaius
and Lucius a clear run, to whom does Suetonius compare Tiberius’ actions? (10)
a. Marcus
Agrippa.
4.
According to Suetonius, why was Julius banished
in 2BC? (11)
a. Immoral
and adulterous behaviour.
5.
Give one example, from this paragraph, of an
omen that predicted Tiberius’ eventual rise to power. (14)
a. A
bird, never before seen on the island, perched on top of his house.
6.
What did Tiberius spend three years doing, after
his return to Rome?
a. Conducted
the supressing of the revolt.
7.
Tiberius visited Germany in 10AD, the year after
Varus’ defeat, to investigate the reasons for the disaster. What was his
verdict on the reasons for the massacre?
a. Varus’
rashness and neglect for precautions against surprise. (18)
8.
What evidence was given to support the image of
Tiberius ad a very “hands on” general? (18)
a. Ate
on bare turf.
b. Slept
in open air.
c.
Wrote all his orders down so that the legions
would understand at all times what he wanted.
9.
What gossip does Suetonius repeat, that gives a
very negative reason for Augustus’ choice of Tiberius as his successor? (21)
a. “Poor
Rome, doomed to be ground by those slaw moving jaws”.
10.
What does Suetonius quote from, to show that
Augustus in fact rated Tiberius? (21)
a.
Augustus’ correspondence.
The Accession of
Tiberius
The
most important element of the accession to understand is that Augustus did not
have any surviving direct male heirs and he had also not established a rule of
succession. This meant that when Augustus died, his position could not be
legally inherited and whilst ancestry or blood was important, it was not
essential. The intended successor (Tiberius) could be threatened by rival
candidates and it was therefore essential that he have the support of the
Senate, the Praetorian Guard and the Army to stay in power.
As
emperor, Augustus held a suite of powers that gave him the power of a
magistrate without needing to actually hold that political position. These
powers were:
·
Proconsular Imperium Maius (maius in Latin means
“greater” so this meant that the emperor’s power over the provinces in the
Roman Empire were greater than anyone else’s). This position also gave the
emperor control of the army.
·
Tribunician Potestas. This was given to Augustus
in 23BC when he resigned from the Consulship, thus losing the ability to
legislate (law making). It allowed him to continue to call the senate and
introduce and veto legislation but it was also very symbolic – the emperor is
responsible for the safety of the Plebeians.
As
the above were powers and not magistracies, it enabled the Senate to transfer
these owers onto another individual after Augustus’ death and this is exactly
what happened to Tiberius in AD14. However, at first he pretends to reject the
offer of imperial power, exactly as Augustus had done in 27BC
The Principate of
Tiberius
|
AD14
|
Became ruler on
Augustus’ death.
Agrippa Postumus was
strangled within weeks of Tiberius’ accession.
Mutinies within the
Rhine and Danube legions (wanted a pay rise).
|
|
AD15
|
Sejanus becomes sole
Prefect of the Praetorian Guard (this role was held by an equestrian as a
senator could challenge for ultimate power).
|
|
AD17
|
Earthquake destroys
cities in Asia Minor; Tacfarinas’ revolt begins in North Africa.
Germanicus given a
triumph maius imperium.
|
|
AD18
|
Tiberius holds the
consulship with Germanicus.
|
|
AD19
|
Death of Germanicus
(Tiberius’ nephew and adopted son) at Antioch, Syria; Piso (Governor of
Syria) is tried for his murder and commits suicide.
|
|
AD21
|
Tiberius grants
Tribunician power to his son Drusus the Younger (Castor in I, Claudius)
designating him as his heir in the wake of Germanicus’ death.
|
|
AD23
|
Death of Tiberius’
son, Drusus the Younger (poisoned by wife Livilla – Germanicus’ sister and
her lover, Sejanus).
|
|
AD27
|
Tiberius took up
residence in Capri, never returning to Rome.
|
|
AD29
|
Death of Livia (Tiberius’
mother); prosecution of Agrippina (Germanicus’ widow) and their two eldest
sons Nero and Drusus.
|
|
AD30
|
Germanicus’ son
Drusus is arrested.
|
|
AD31
|
Joint consulship of
Tiberius and Sejanus (to make Sejanus think he had succeeded in becoming the heir);
denunciation and execution of Sejanus on 18th October.
|
|
AD37
|
Death of Tiberius
(smothered by Macro and/or Caligula?) on 17th March. Body brought
back to Rome; cremated and ashes placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Not
deified by senate.
|
Tiberius and His
Family (Early on in Reign)
Germanicus Profile
|
Full name
|
Germanicus Julius
Caesar.
|
|
Date and place of
birth
|
24th
April 15BC in Rome.
|
|
Parents
|
Drusus the Elder and
Antonia the Younger
|
|
Grandparents
|
Livia and Tiberius
Claudius Nero.
Octavia and Marc Antony.
|
|
Married to
|
Agrippina the Elder.
|
|
Children
|
Nero, Drusus, Gaius
Caligula, Agrippina Minor, Livilla, Drusilla.
|
|
Adopted by
|
Tiberius on the
orders of Augustus in AD4.
|
|
Military experience
|
AD12 Command in Gaul
and the Rhine.
AD14-16 Command
across the Rhine.
AD14 Quelled mutiny
in the rhine.
AD18 Supreme commander
of the Eastern provinces.
|
Tour of East
|
|
Where
|
Cappadocia and
Commagene.
|
|
Why
|
Incorporate
Cappadocia and Commagene as provinces and install a new king in Armenia (land
between Rome and Parthian empires).
|
|
Key events
|
Unauthorised visit
to Egypt (Emperor’s province). Released the grain supplies and has coins cast
in his own image, making him popular.
|
Death
|
|
How
|
Illness or poisoned.
|
|
Where
|
In Syria.
|
|
When
|
AD19
|
|
Who was blamed
|
Piso and/or wife
Plancina.
|
Outcome
|
|
For Piso
|
Piso flees Syria
after a breakdown in their relationship. Returns to take the province by
force. Piso is prosecuted on return to Italy. He was tried and committed
suicide.
|
|
For Tiberius
|
Drusus becomes his
heir.
Never escapes
suspicion of killing Germanicus.
Conflict between
Tiberius and Agrippina (Germanicus’ wife).
|
Understanding Why
Germanicus was a Threat to Tiberius
Germanicus
was the son of Tiberius’ popular brother, Drusus the elder (who had died in
9BC). Both Suetonius and Tacitus paint a glowing picture of Germanicus with
Suetonius commenting on his “outstanding physical and moral excellence” and
Tacitus noting that had he lived “he would have equalled Alexander (the Great)
in military renown as easily as he outdid him in clemency, self-control and
every other good quality”. Tacitus also presents his wife, Agrippina as the
most admirable and striking of Imperial women. Germanicus was immensely popular
with the Roman people and the army – probably due to his lineage. Germanicus
was partly Julian and his wife was the granddaughter of Augustus.
After
quelling the mutiny in lower Germany, Tacitus tells us that Germanicus embarked
on a number of campaigns across the Rhine from AD14-16, without the authority
of Tiberius (and going against what had been Augustus’ foreign policy to
maintain strong frontiers). He achieved only minor successes and suffered
serious losses of men, ships and supplies. Despite Germanicus’ wishes to
campaign for one more year, Tiberius instructed him to return to Rome and
offered him a second consulship, as well as a diplomatic mission to the East to
install a pro-Roman on the throne of Armenia. To keep Germanicus’ ambition in
check, Tiberius arranged for Calpurnius Piso to take over the province of Syria
and keep an eye on Germanicus. This was despite the fact that Germanicus, as a
Consul, had Imperium and therefore
control over all governors and commanders in the East.
Despite
a successful diplomatic mission, Germanicus breached protocol on a number of
occasions:
1.
Visited Egypt to look at the antiquities despite
the law that no Senator could enter the province without the Emperor’s
permission.
2.
Released grain from the public granaries without
the approval and lowered the cost of grain.
3.
He had his image cast on silver coins.
Despite
obviously having a good reason to keep an eye on Germanicus, Tiberius had made
a bad choice in Piso as spy. Rather than simply reporting back, Piso made an
enemy of Germanicus by cancelling or reversing his instructions and refusing to
provide him with troops. Germanicus ordered Piso out of the province and Piso
attempted to stir up the Syrian troops against Germanicus. Not long after
Piso’s departure, Germanicus became ill and died, and Tacitus records that on
his deathbed, Germanicus accused Piso and his wife Plancina of poisoning him.
Following the death, Piso attempted to re-establish control of Syria by force
(an illegal act) and when failed he sailed for Sicily where Agrippina accused
him and Plancina of murdering her husband on the instructions of Tiberius.
Germanicus’
popularity is evident form the honours bestowed on him after his death and the
triumphal arches, statues and inscriptions erected. Tiberius created hostility
by not appearing at the funeral ceremonies and calling for moderation in
mourning. Whilst there is no evidence that either Piso or Tiberius had anything
to do with Germanicus’ death, Tacitus admits it was uncertain whether the body
showed signs of poisoning.
Drusus the Younger
Profile
|
Full name
|
Nero Claudius Drusus and later Drusus
Julius Caesar.
|
|
Date and place of birth
|
13BC.
Rome.
|
|
Parents
|
Tiberius and Vipsania.
|
|
Grandparents
|
Livia and Tiberius.
Marcus Agrippa.
|
|
Married to with date of marriage
|
Livilla.
4AD.
|
|
Children
|
Julia, Tiberius Gemellus, Claudius
Caesar.
|
|
Career
|
AD2 – Introduced to public life.
AD15- Consul.
AD17-20 – Governor of Illyricum.
AD21- Share consulship with Tiberius.
|
|
Enemies
|
Sejanus.
|
|
Nickname
|
Castor – the patron god of the
Praetorian Guard. Ironic nickname after being I a fight with the guardsman.
|
|
Date and place of death
|
AD23.
Rome.
|
|
How did he die?
|
Illness/overindulgence/poisoning.
|
|
Who was blamed?
|
Sejanus and Livilla.
|
|
Outcome for Tiberius
|
He has no heir of age, therefore may
look towards his advisor Sejanus more.
Germanicus’ sons were intrusted to care
of senate.
|
Sejanus
|
Full name
|
Lucius Aelius Sejanus.
|
|
Date and place of birth
|
20 BC, Volsinii, Etruria.
|
|
Married to
|
Apicata (has an affair with Livilla).
|
|
Children
|
Strabo, Capito Aelianus and daughter
Junilla – all died during his downfall.
|
|
Social class
|
Equestrian
|
|
Family members
|
Father, Lucius Seius Strabo, was
Praetorian Prefect before Sejanus.
Becomes joint Prefect with Sejanus.
When he retires, Sejanus remains the
sole Prefect of the Praetorian Guard.
|
|
Career
|
Accompanied Gaius Caesar on campaigns
to Armenia in 1BC.
Appointed to co-Prefect.
|
|
Enemies
|
Drusus the Younger – favourite to
succeed Tiberius.
Sejanus eliminated Drusus with the help
of Livilla.
|
|
Relationship with Tiberius
|
Relationship crucial to maintain power.
The more impressed with his abilities,
the more dependent he was upon him.
Sejanus attempted to marry into the
Julio-Claudian family but Tiberius refused.
Began to isolate Tiberius from Rome by
fuelling his paranoia towards Agrippina and the senate.
Capri retirement – Sejanus becomes sole
ruler of Rome.
Controls correspondence to and from
Tiberius on Capri.
|
Main Sources
David
Shotter – Tiberius (Shotter sees Sejanus as an arch-villain).
Thomas Wiedemann – The Julio Claudian Emperors (questions whether Sejanus was
really responsible for all the crimes laid at his door).
The Praetorian
Guard
At
Augustus’ death in AD14, there were two joint prefects (commanders) of the
Praetorian Guard – Lucius Seius Strabo and his son, Lucius Aelius Sejanus (both
of whom were of equestrian i.e. knight status) Tiberius then made Sejanus sole
prefect when his father become Prefect of Egypt.
The
Praetorian Guard were the only Roman troops actually stationed in Italy – the
legions and auxiliaries were garrisoned in the provinces, to keep the peace, to
avoid armed insurrection in Rome itself, and to avoid giving the impression of
a military dictatorship. The Praetorian Guard consisted of 9 cohorts of 1000
men each, giving a total strength of 9000 men. Under Augustus, the Praetorian
Guard had been billeted in the small towns around Rome (in order to keep a low
profile). Augustus also ensured that there should always be two prefects of the
Praetorian Guard, who should always be equestrians rather than senators (s0
that they could pose no challenge to his own position as princeps).
Sejanus’ Background
Although
he was “only” a knight, Sejanus was related to several families of
senatorial/consular status. His uncle was Quintus Junius Blaesus, who was
Governor of Pannonia and commander of its legions at the time of Tiberius’
accession (the same Blaesus who later become Governor of Africa and helped to
squash Tacfarinas’ revolt). Sejanus was adopted by Quintus Aelius Tubero, which
meant he had adoptive brothers of consular status.
Tacitus
implies that Sejanus suddenly became important in AD23, which David Shotter
believes is (deliberately?) misleading, as it implies that he suddenly exploded
out of nowhere onto the political scene. We know that Sejanus already had a
political role before then – in AD14 he accompanied Tiberius’, Drusus, on his
mission to put down a mutiny among the Pannonian legions.
How did Sejanus
acquire such influence over Tiberius?
1.
Sejanus came across as loyal, efficient,
hard-working and independent – all qualities which Tiberius highly prized –
without being sycophantic, which Tiberius detested.
2.
Tiberius felt comfortable in the company of
soldiers as he did not rust many people. Due to the fact that he became emperor
relatively late in life, he felt increasingly isolated during his reign as his
friends and relatives died – this left him increasingly reliant on someone in
whom he did not feel confident.
3.
Sejanus made a very careful study of Tiberius’
character and played on his insecurities.
4.
By AD23, Tiberius was approving statues of
Sejanus in Rome and calls him socius
laborum “partner of my labours”.
What were Sejanus’
aims?
1.
To prevent any reconciliation between Tiberius
and Agrippina (Germanicus’ widow). Remember that Agrippina believed Tiberius
had poisoned Germanicus.
2.
To isolate Tiberius and control access to him
e.g. when Tiberius retires to Capri.
3.
To undermine those who might have helped
Tiberius or given him good advice.
4.
To dominate Tiberius by making him reliant on
him for the efficient administration of the Empire.
5.
To become Tiberius’ successor, which would
require marriage into the imperial family.
Sejanus’ actions
1.
Sejanus persuaded Tiberius that the cohorts of
the Praetorian Guard should be brought together into a single camp on the
eastern side of Rome – to increase the sense of group cohesion and enable more
efficient deployment and transmission of orders. In practice, this was to
increase Sejanus’ own power as commander of a large fighting force within Rome
itself. Wiedemann argues that it actually made sound sense to concentrate the
Praetorian Guard in a single camp.
2.
Sejanus seduced Drusus the Younger’s wife,
Livilla (sister of Claudius) and together they planned and executed Drusus’
murder (Tiberius was unaware of this until AD30). Sejanus hoped that he would
be able to marry the widowed Livilla and thus gain control over Tiberius’ only
remaining direct descendent, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus (particularly if
Tiberius died whilst Gemellus was still a minor). However Tiberius refused
permission for Sejanus to marry Livilla (because of his equestrian status).
3.
Sejanus deliberately set out to drive a wedge
between Tiberius and Agrippina. Tiberius’ aims in terms of the succession had
been that Drusus should be the guardian of Germanicus’ elder sons, Nero and
Drusus, in order to marginalise Agrippina and her circle. Sejanus exploited
Tiberius’ suspicion of Agrippina by engineering law cases against particular
friends of Agrippina whom Tiberius was unlikely to feel any sympathy for; he
manipulated these cases to ensure it appeared to Agrippina that it was Tiberius
himself, not Sejanus, who was orchestrating the attacks on her and her friends
– e.g. the attack in AD24 on Gaius Silius and his wife Sosia Galla. In AD26, an
attack was launched on Agrippina’s cousin, Claudia Pulchra. In his regular
briefings to Tiberius, he built up the concept of a party or faction centred on
Agrippina. Sejanus also managed to convince both Agrippina and Tiberius that
the other one was trying to poison them.
4.
Sejanus may have persuaded or driven Tiberius
into his decision to retire from public life in Rome in AD26 (when he was 67)
and spent the rest of his reign on Carpi or in the near Naples area. According
to Tacitus, it was an incident at one particular trial, the trial of Votienus
Montanus that pushed Tiberius into retirement. He was forced to listen to a
witness (probably hand-picked and instructed by Sejanus) repeating a strong of
very unpleasant remarks about Tiberius that had supposedly been made by the
accused, including allegations about his sexual perversions.
5.
Sejanus intended that Tiberius should become
dependent on him for information, so he became the censor of news to and from
Capri. Also, with Tiberius away from Rome, it would be easier for Sejanus to
undermine Agrippina, her friends and family.
6.
On the way back to Carpi, by chance, Sejanus was
able to reinforce Tiberius’ trust and reliance on him when he saved his life
during a rock fall at a cave near Sperlonga, near Naples, where Tiberius was
picnicking. It was in his interests to keep him alive as it was necessary for
Tiberius to name his successor.
7.
Once Tiberius was on Capri, Sejanus targeted
Nero, the eldest son of Germanicus and Agrippina, for harassment and
intimidation. He exploited the jealousy and suspicion that existed between Nero
and his brother Drusus. Sejanus continued to pose as Agrippina’s friend and
this increased her insecurity. In fact, Sejanus so successfully appeared as
Agrippina’s friend that after Sejanus’ fall, Tiberius found it very difficult to
accept that Agrippina and her family were not associated with Sejanus.
8.
Livia acted as a restraint on Sejanus’ behaviour
while he still lived, but her death in AD29 removed this check on him. Soon
after her death, Agrippina, Nero, Drusus and a number of their supporters were
imprisoned; Nero committed suicide in prison in AD30 (starves to death).
9.
In AD30-31, Sejanus tried to build further
support for himself amongst the plebs of Rome and among the armies. He made
approaches to the commanders of the armies of Upper and Lower Germany, seeking
the promise of support in the event of Tiberius’ eventual death.
The Fall of Sejanus
N.B: Tacitus’ account of the fall of
Sejanus in AD30-31 is now lost. Juvenal (of all people) is actually a major
source for the fall of Sejanus, as her refers to it in his Tenth Satire.
Tiberius
was warned about Sejanus in AD30 (apparently by Antonia, Tiberius’ sister in
law and Claudius’ mother), but he didn’t take public action until October AD31
(needs to plan as he is not in Rome, Sejanus could have assassinated him). In
AD31, Tiberius appointed himself and Sejanus as joint consuls. Tiberius rarely
held the consulship himself throughout his reign (as hogging the consulship
would have gone against his principle of trying to encourage senatorial
independence) and this was only his fifth consulship. Previously, he had shared
the consulship with his tow sons and heirs, Drusus and Germanicus, so his
shared consulship with Sejanus implied that he was planning further promotions
for Sejanus – Tribunician power? Permission to marry Livilla and therefore
become part of the Imperial family (thus designating him as his heir?).
However, Tiberius resigned his own consulship in May (to make Sejanus feel
insecure?).
Tiberius
took very few people into his confidence about his plans to cause Sejanus’
downfall – apart from Sertorius Macro (the deputy prefect of the Praetorian
Guard, who was to become Sejanus’ replacement) and Memmius Regulus, Tiberius’
replacement as consul.
Wiedemann
describes the execution of Sejanus on 18th October AD31 as “one of
the most carefully stage-managed events in Roman history”. At the senate
meeting, Macro replaced the guard of Praetorians with soldiers of the night
watch (vigils), then handed over a letter from Tiberius to the senate regarding
Sejanus – it was carefully worded so as to leave Sejanus in the expectation of
promotion until the very last moment. After being denounced, Sejanus was led
off to execution and the Roman people destroyed his statues.
Tiberius
is said to have stated in his own autobiography (now lost) that he destroyed
Sejanus because of his plots against the children of Germanicus. This claim
might actually be true as shown by the fact in AD30, apparently acting on
Antonina’s advice, Tiberius had Caligula and his sisters (Drusilla, Livilla and
Agrippina) brought to Capri – perhaps in order to offer them improved
protection and get them away from Rome and Sejanus.
The Aftermath of
Sejanus’ Death
The
death of Sejanus was followed by a witch hunt against his supporters – unfair,
in the view of the fact that Tiberius’ trust in Sejanus and his mandate to him
would have encouraged people to try and keep in with Sejanus. Sejanus’
estranged wife, Apicata, who committed suicide, before she died, told the full
story of Sejanus’ relationship with Livilla and their murder of Drusus. Junius
Blaesus, Sejanus’ uncle, also committed suicide.
Drusus
(Germanicus’ second son) died in AD33, provoking an attack from Tiberius about
the damage that Drusus had done to Rome and his family. Assuming that Tiberius
now knew the role that Drusus had played in helping Sejanus to bring down his
brother Nero, this attack was actually justified. Tiberius could legitimately
have regarded Drusus as an accomplice of Sejanus.
Agrippina
died on 18th October AD33, exactly two years to the day after
Sejanus’ execution. This coincidence was not lost of Tiberius, who saw
Agrippina and Sejanus as conspirators bent on his destruction.
In
the case of Asinius Gallus (senator who had married Vipsania and used to wind
up Tiberius during the senate meetings), Tiberius felt (not unreasonably?) that
Gallus had been trying to undermine him for a long time, through his behaviour
in the senate. Agrippina had hoped to marry Gallus, although Tiberius refused
permission (partly because this might encourage Gallus himself to mount a claim
on princeps). Tiberius was convinced that Gallus has been in cahoots with
Sejanus.
The Legacy of
Sejanus
1.
In order to further his own ambitions of
imperial power, Sejanus brought about the near destruction of the imperial
family, leaving very few viable candidates to be next emperor (Caligula,
Tiberius Gemellus and of course, “old uncle Claudius”).
2.
The sycophancy of the senators increased
further.
3.
Tiberius refused to ever enter Rome again.
4.
Fear and suspicion among the nobility – would
have felt that they did the right thing supporting Sejanus but then saw what
happened to the others.
5.
Macro, the new Praetorian Prefect, was even more
cruel, depraved and power hungry than Sejanus. Tiberius removed Sejanus but
allowed his even worse replacement to have enormous power too. He did not learn
from his mistakes.
6.
The whole Sejanus episode highlighted the
sensitivity of the relationship between princeps, army and Praetorian Guard.
Few emperors were prepared to risk antagonising the Praetorian Prefect, so much
so that Vespasian later experimented with giving this post to members of his
own family.
Tiberius and the Treason Trials
The Treason law
before Tiberius’ Principate
·
In the late Republic, there was a law against
committing actions which “diminished the majesty of the Roman senate and
people”.
·
Augustus revised this law to produce the Lex
Julia da maiestate (Lex = law, Julia as Augustus was a member of the Julian
clan, maiestas means treason in Latin).
·
Augustus extended the law to include treasonable
words, written or spoken, as well as actions.
·
Under Augustus, the law increasingly became
restricted to actions or words which were alleged to have damaged the princeps
or his family.
·
Augustus extended the remit of the senate,
giving it a judicial function to hear cases against its own members.
Weaknesses of the
Treason Law in Tiberius’ Principate
·
Insufficient/vague definition of treason – any
action or words which “diminished the majesty of the Roman state or people”.
·
Evidence based on hearsay – reports of
conversations etc.
·
No public prosecutor/state prosecution service.
·
The Romans had no public prosecutor. Instead it
fell to individual prosecutors/informers (delatores) – eager to gain one
quarter of the property of the accused if they were convicted (an incentive to
prosecute the wealthiest citizens). In AD25, there as a proposal that the
informers should not receive their award if the accused person committed
suicide before the trial finished. Tiberius stopped this measure before it was
passed. Insisting that the law remain. Tacitus saw this as support for the
informers but it could also signify respect for the law.
·
Intimidation of witnesses.
·
Treason cases were tried by senators keen to
ingratiate themselves with Tiberius.
·
Tiberius himself insisted on sitting in on
treason cases, whether they were heard in the senate or in the permanent court
(quaestio de maiestate) which was presided over by a praetor. His presence
intimidated members of the court.
·
Tiberius’ ambivalent attitude and his insistence
of remaining impartial and not intervening in the senate’s decisions made it
difficult for the senate to gauge what he wanted, as he failed to give clear
guidance on what outcome he wanted for each case (awkward when the cases
related to him himself).
·
Tiberius introduced a 9 day cooling off period
between sentencing and execution – in theory to give time for sentences to be
reconsidered – but this made no difference because he never changed his
judgements during this period, and the senate did not wish to risk angering him
by changing their judgement.
·
The use of the reason law damaged Tiberius’ own
attempts to present himself as “just another senator”, as these cases – which
related to insults made against him or his family – served to emphasise the
fact that he was really on a higher level than the other senators.
·
Successful treason convictions often led to
sycophantic behaviour on the part of senators (proposing thanksgiving
sacrifices to gods etc.) which served to further undermine their independence
and integrity.
Conclusion
In
the reign of Tiberius, there were eighty
six maiestas cases in the “reign of terror” but at least thirty of the
charged were acquitted. There were eighteen
executions but the majority of these were for conspiracies not slander of
Tiberius. Tiberius also quashed many convictions and reduced the severity of
others.
The
senate must bear some responsibility for the reason trials and many occurred
whilst Sejanus was in charge of Rome. It
does appear that there were more prosecutions after Sejanus’ death, when the
senate took the opportunity to rid the state of his supporters. Towards the end
of his reign, Tiberius convicted a few people 0 but his experience of Sejanus
had led him to become insecure and fearful. One of the people convicted was
Sextus Paconianus, who was charged with writing satires against Tiberius.
Suetonius’ summary
of treason charges (Life of Tiberius, 58)
“One
man was accused of decapitating an image of Augustus with a view to
substituting another head; his case was tried before the senate and, finding a
conflict of evidence, Tiberius had the witnesses examined under torture. The
offender was convicted, which provided a precedent for far-fetched accusations:
people could now be executed for beating a slave, or changing their own clothes
close to an image of Augustus, or carrying a ring or coin, bearing Augustus’
head into a lavatory or brothel; or for criticising anything Augustus had ever
said or done. The climax came when a man died merely for letting an honour be
voted on him by his native town council on the same day the honours had been
voted to Augustus.”
Tiberius and the
Senate
The
Treason Trials profoundly affected the most important political body in Rome –
the Senate. It instilled a sense of fear and resentment in the Senators.
However it also could be used as a tool to rid am ambitious senator of a
political rival, by accusing them of treason.
The
Treason Trials also affected Tiberius’ relationship with the senate in another
way. Rather than hardening the opposition to Tiberius, it only increased the
sycophancy that Tiberius hated so much.